Antibiotic Resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae in Iraq: A Narrative Review

2025-07-03T13:27:44+00:00

Antibiotic resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) poses a significant public health challenge globally, with Iraq experiencing a notable rise in multidrug-resistant strains. This narrative review evaluates current evidence on antibiotic resistance patterns and genetic mechanisms underlying resistance in K. pneumoniae isolates across Iraq. The review highlights a high prevalence of B-lactam resistance, particularly to penicillins and cephalosporins, largely driven by extended-spectrum B-lactamase (ESBL) genes such as bla_SHV, bla_TEM, and bla_CTX-M. Carbapenem resistance is alarmingly increasing and is mediated primarily by carbapenemase genes, including bla_OXA-48, bla_NDM, and bla_VIM, with the bla_KPC gene emerging in select regions. Aminoglycoside resistance remains moderate, with amikacin retaining efficacy, though resistance genes like strA and strB contribute to variability. Quinolone resistance is attributed to chromosomal mutations, efflux pumps, and plasmid-mediated genes such as qnrS and qnrB, with resistance rates varying significantly by region and clinical setting. The dissemination of resistance is further facilitated by efflux pumps, including acrAB, mdtK, and tolC and porin loss (ompK35, ompK36). Despite increased research, gaps remain due to limited sample sizes and regional disparities in individual studies. To combat this escalating threat, the review advocates for a coordinated national surveillance system, stringent antibiotic stewardship, enhanced infection control measures, and wider implementation of molecular diagnostics. Addressing these challenges is crucial to controlling the spread of resistant K. pneumoniae and preserving the efficacy of existing antibiotics in Iraq.

Microbiological Evaluation of Point-of-Sale Machines in Nkwerre, Imo State, Nigeria

2025-06-16T16:43:58+00:00

Point-of-sale (POS) machines have evolved into some of the most frequently touched devices in Nigeria today. This study aimed to assess the microbial proxies on the surfaces of point-of-sale (POS) machines utilised in Nkwerre Local Government Area, Imo State, Nigeria. Ten samples were collected from the primary operators at easily accessible locations. Surface swabs of the POS devices were obtained using a manually constructed square quadrant and a saline-moistened swab. The samples were transported to the laboratory and analysed for qualitative and quantitative microbial indices using analytical grade reagents and standard procedures. The total heterotrophic bacterial count for sample Bi2 was 4.95 Log10 CFU/cm², accompanied by a total coliform count of 4.86 Log10 CFU/cm². The total fungal count was 3.07 Log10 CFU/cm², and the total Staphylococcal count reached 4.69 Log10 CFU/cm². During the study, twenty-nine (29) isolates were observed, which were then reduced to five (5) based on their biochemical and morphological features. The tentatively identified bacterial isolates included Citrobacter sp., Proteus sp., Klebsiella sp., Staphylococcus sp., and Aeromonas sp. Staphylococcus sp. was found to have a frequency of occurrence of 57.50%, Klebsiella sp. 21.88%, Proteus sp. 18.75%, while Aeromonas sp. and Citrobacter sp. recorded 9.38% and 12.50%, respectively. These flora are known to cause several clinically significant diseases, as corroborated by previous studies. Manufacturers of these devices must be alerted to the necessity of developing a decontamination protocol to ensure the safety of usage for the numerous patrons in urban and rural communities.

Journal of Life and Bio Sciences Research

Antibiotic Resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae in Iraq: A Narrative Review

Microbiological Evaluation of Point-of-Sale Machines in Nkwerre, Imo State, Nigeria